Indian Embroidery Designs Decoded: Regional Styles, Historical Roots & Modern Expressions

1. Introduction to India's Embroidery Tapestry

India’s embroidery, whether created by hand or with an embroidery machine, is more than just ornamentation—it’s a living, breathing tapestry of culture, history, and identity. From the vibrant fields of Punjab to the tranquil hills of Tamil Nadu, each region weaves its own story in thread, color, and motif. Indian embroidery is a symphony of regional styles, each echoing centuries of tradition, innovation, and artistry. Whether it’s the floral exuberance of Phulkari, the Mughal-inspired elegance of Chikankari and Zardozi, or the geometric marvels of tribal crafts, each stitch is a chapter in India’s grand narrative.

This blog unpacks the diversity of Indian embroidery by exploring regional styles, tracing their historical evolution, decoding the materials and techniques that set them apart, and unraveling the symbolism embedded in every motif. We’ll also spotlight the artisans whose hands keep these traditions alive and examine how contemporary designers are reimagining these crafts for the global stage. Embroidery in India isn’t just about beauty—it’s about storytelling, community, and the enduring threads that tie past to present.

Table of Contents

• 1. Introduction to India's Embroidery Tapestry
• 2. Regional Embroidery Styles of India
• 3. Historical Evolution of Indian Embroidery
• 4. Materials, Tools, and Techniques Decoded
• 5. Symbolism in Motifs: Nature, Myth, and Geometry
• 6. Contemporary Applications in Global Fashion
• 7. Artisan Communities: Preservation and Challenges
• 8. Conclusion: Threads of Continuity and Innovation
• 9. FAQ on Indian Embroidery Designs

2. Regional Embroidery Styles of India

Indian embroidery is a kaleidoscope—each region reflecting its own heritage through unique embroiderydesign, climate, and community through needle and thread. Let’s journey through three iconic traditions that showcase the country’s artistry and cultural depth.

2.1 Phulkari of Punjab: Floral Heritage in Vibrant Threads

Phulkari, meaning “flower work,” is the soul of Punjab’s embroidery tradition. Born in the humble homes of rural women, Phulkari is less a product of royal ateliers and more a testament to familial love and community. Historically, mothers taught daughters the craft not through formal instruction, but by shared practice and observation, passing down not just technique but memory.

Phulkari is instantly recognizable for its dense, radiant floral patterns stitched with glossy silk threads on coarse khaddar (handspun cotton). What sets it apart? The embroidery is worked from the reverse side, using the satin stitch to create a subtle, embossed texture on the front. Motifs burst with symbolism—lotuses for purity, wheat stalks for prosperity, and geometric flowers for abundance. Colors are never random: red signifies joy and fertility, yellow invokes prosperity, and green heralds new beginnings.

Phulkari isn’t just decorative. Traditionally, it sanctified life’s milestones—births, weddings, and festivals—never sold, but gifted as a labor of love. Over time, variations like Chope, Subhar, and Bagh emerged, each with unique patterns and meanings. Today, Phulkari enjoys Geographical Indication (GI) status, protecting its authenticity and honoring the artisans who keep this heritage alive.

2.2 Chikankari & Zardozi: Mughal-Inspired Elegance

If Phulkari is Punjab’s heart, Chikankari and Zardozi are Lucknow’s soul—embodying the refined tastes of the Mughal courts. Chikankari, derived from the Persian word “chikan” (embroidery), was elevated by Empress Nur Jahan, who infused Persian sensibilities into Indian textiles. This art is famed for its delicate, white-on-white stitching on fine muslin, employing a repertoire of over 30 stitches, from flat to embossed, creating intricate floral and paisley motifs. The magic? Much of the work is done on the reverse, resulting in a subtle, ethereal finish.

Zardozi, on the other hand, is embroidery’s answer to regal opulence. Originating from Persian traditions and reaching its zenith under Mughal patronage, Zardozi uses gold and silver threads—sometimes adorned with pearls and precious stones—to create dazzling designs on silk, velvet, or brocade. The V&A Museum’s Mughal court garments stand as glittering testaments to this tradition, where luxury and artistry intertwine.

Together, Chikankari and Zardozi illustrate the Mughal era’s fusion of cultures, where Persian motifs and Indian craftsmanship coalesced into wearable poetry.

2.3 Tribal Traditions: Banjara and Toda Innovations

India’s tribal embroidery is a celebration of community, mobility, and resilience. The Banjara, nomadic tribes from Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, have developed an embroidery bursting with color, texture, and ingenuity. Their work combines appliqué, mirrors (shisha), cowrie shells, and beads, stitched in bold geometric or abstract patterns that echo their itinerant lifestyle. Each garment is a canvas of daily life and belief, designed for both beauty and durability.

Travel south to Tamil Nadu, and the Toda tribe offers a masterclass in geometric minimalism. Using red and black woolen threads on white cloth, Toda embroidery features pyramids, triangles, and rectangles—motifs believed to hold ritual significance. Stitched in reverse to create a raised effect, these designs reflect the tribe’s spiritual connection to their land and traditions.

Both Banjara and Toda embroideries are more than decorative—they are visual diaries of movement, adaptation, and identity, shaped by the hands and journeys of their makers.

3. Historical Evolution of Indian Embroidery

Indian embroidery is not just ancient—it’s a living record of civilization, empire, and adaptation, its threads connecting millennia of artistry and cultural exchange.

3.1 Ancient Roots to Mughal Renaissance

The story begins in the Indus Valley, where archaeological finds and Vedic texts reveal that intricate needlework was already an esteemed craft by the 5th century BCE. Early references by travelers like Megasthenes describe the splendor of embroidered court attire, underscoring embroidery’s role as both art and status symbol.

The Mughal era, however, was embroidery’s golden age. With the arrival of Persian aesthetics and imperial patronage, Indian artisans pushed the boundaries of technique and design. Empress Nur Jahan’s love for Chikankari transformed it into a courtly art, while Zardozi evolved from Persian roots into a uniquely Indian expression of luxury, using gold, silver, and silk threads in elaborate motifs. The Mughal courts became crucibles of innovation, where chain-stitching, aari work, and new motifs flourished and spread across regions.

Trade and migration further fueled this evolution. As artisans traveled between courts and communities, styles like Kantha, Kutch, and Chamba Rumal emerged, each adapting to local tastes and materials while retaining echoes of imperial grandeur.

3.2 Colonial Adaptations and Post-Independence Revival

Colonial rule brought upheaval—and new influences. Victorian motifs mingled with traditional patterns, creating hybrid styles that adorned both ethnic and Western garments. The decline of regional courts prompted artisan migration, with craftspeople relocating to new centers like Lucknow, ensuring the survival and transformation of their techniques.

Post-independence, India launched a renaissance of preservation. Government initiatives, NGOs, and artisan collectives worked tirelessly to revive endangered crafts like Chamba Rumal, promote local styles through festivals and exhibitions, and pass down skills through education. Today, embroidery is recognized not just as decorative art, but as living heritage—a testament to the resilience and adaptability of India’s artisans.

Yet, challenges remain. As traditions shift from ceremonial to commercial use, the balance between authenticity and innovation is ever in flux. Still, the legacy endures: every embroidered garment is a bridge between past and present, a symbol of continuity in the face of change. This continuity extends to modern machine embroidery techniques that build upon these historical foundations.

Ready to explore the materials, tools, and techniques that make Indian embroidery so distinctive? Keep reading as we decode the secrets behind the stitches.

4. Materials, Tools, and Techniques Decoded

Indian embroidery is a dazzling interplay of tradition, innovation, and resourcefulness—each region’s artistry shaped by the materials at hand and the ingenuity of its makers. Let’s unravel the secrets behind the shimmer, texture, and precision that define these textile marvels.

4.1 Signature Materials: From Zari to Beetle Wings

The soul of Indian embroidery lies in its materials—each chosen not just for beauty, but for cultural resonance and technical effect.

Zari Threads and Metallic Splendor

Zari, the legendary gold and silver thread, is the lifeblood of luxury embroidery across India. Historically, genuine gold and silver were drawn into fine wires, then wrapped around silk or cotton threads—forming the backbone of opulent zardozi work. Today, while pure metals are reserved for the most exclusive pieces, silver-gilt and metallic alternatives offer a more accessible shimmer. Zari isn’t just thread; it’s a statement, gracing everything from Mughal court garments to contemporary bridal couture.

Beetle Wings: Nature’s Iridescent Jewels

If you’ve ever marveled at a fabric that seems to glow with emerald light, you’ve likely glimpsed beetle wing embroidery. Artisans painstakingly cut the iridescent elytra of jewel beetles into sequins, stitching them onto silk or muslin. Once a symbol of status in Mughal courts, beetle wing work traveled the world—adorned by Victorian women and prized in European fashion. Imagine a single dress shimmering with thousands of these natural “gems”—each one a testament to patience and artistry.

Mirror Work (Shisha): Reflecting Aspiration

Shisha, or mirror embroidery, democratizes luxury. Originating in 17th-century India, this technique attached tiny mirrors or mica chips to fabric, mimicking the sparkle of jewels. Over time, mass-produced glass mirrors replaced natural materials, making the look accessible to all. Today, shisha is a staple of festive wear—its reflective surfaces believed to ward off bad luck and invite celebration.

Organic and Sustainable Touches

Indian embroidery is deeply sustainable at its roots. Kantha artisans in Bengal repurpose old sarees, layering and quilting them with simple running stitches. Kasuti work in Karnataka once relied on leftover silk threads from the local weaving industry, a practice that echoes today’s eco-conscious ethos. Even dyes—like indigo and madder—are often plant-based, infusing textiles with natural vibrancy.

Fabric Foundations

From coarse khaddar and delicate muslin to opulent velvet and brocade, the choice of base fabric shapes the final effect. Each tradition—be it Chikankari’s ethereal cottons or Banjara’s sturdy cottons—selects materials that balance beauty, durability, and cultural meaning.

4.2 Stitching Methods: Aari Hooks to Kashida Precision

The magic of Indian embroidery is as much in the hand as the material. Techniques range from the elegantly simple to the breathtakingly complex.

Aari Chain-Stitching: Speed and Finesse

Aari work, originating in Gujarat and Kashmir, uses a specialized hooked needle (the aari) to create rapid, fluid chain stitches. This tool allows artisans to cover large surfaces quickly, producing swirling florals, paisleys, and even entire scenes. The result? Embroidery that feels almost painted, with a texture both bold and delicate.

Kashida: The Art of Single-Stitch Mastery

Kashida from Kashmir is all about precision. Using a variety of stitches—often without knots at the start or end—artisans create patterns that look identical on both sides of the fabric. Each motif, inspired by nature, is rendered with meticulous care, making Kashida a showcase of technical mastery.

Kantha: Storytelling in Running Stitches

Kantha, the pride of Bengal, transforms the humble running stitch into a narrative tool. Layered fabrics are quilted and embroidered with motifs ranging from flowers to mythological tales, all in a rhythmic, meditative flow. The simplicity of the stitch belies the depth of storytelling it achieves.

Zardozi Couching: Embellished Grandeur

Zardozi, the crown jewel of Mughal embroidery, employs couching—a method where metallic threads are laid on the fabric surface and stitched down with finer threads. This technique, often combined with beads, pearls, and even beetle wings, creates a raised, sculptural effect that radiates luxury.

Modern Hooping Tools for Complex Fabrics

As embroidery evolves, so do the tools. For intricate designs on challenging fabrics—think thick velvet or layered garments—modern hooping tools streamline the process. These devices hold fabric taut, ensuring even tension and minimizing distortion, especially when working with elaborate techniques like zardozi or aari.

4.3 Modern Tools Enhancing Traditional Practice

While the heart of Indian embroidery beats with tradition, its hands increasingly wield modern tools that honor the past while embracing the future.

Magnetic Embroidery Hoops: Precision Meets Preservation

For garment embroidery, magnetic embroidery hoops like MaggieFrame and hooping stations like the hoopmaster hooping station have become game-changers. Unlike traditional screw-based hoops, MaggieFrame uses powerful magnets to secure fabric effortlessly—no manual adjustments, no uneven tension, and most importantly, no risk of distorting delicate stitches. This innovation is especially valuable for techniques like zardozi, where maintaining fabric integrity is crucial. By stabilizing even the most challenging materials, MaggieFrame empowers artisans to achieve flawless results with less effort and waste.

Whether you’re reviving a centuries-old motif or experimenting with contemporary designs, the right materials and tools are your passport to embroidery excellence. Ready to decode the stories woven into every thread? Let’s explore the language of motifs next.

5. Symbolism in Motifs: Nature, Myth, and Geometry

Every stitch in Indian embroidery is a word; every motif, a sentence in a language of memory, aspiration, and belonging. Let’s decode the visual poetry that transforms fabric into a living story.

5.1 Floral and Fauna Narratives

The Lotus: Spirituality and Cosmic Order

The lotus (padma) reigns supreme in Indian embroidery, its petals unfolding across Kantha quilts, Chikankari saris, and temple hangings. More than a flower, the lotus symbolizes purity, spiritual awakening, and the union of earth, water, and sky. In Hindu philosophy, it is the seat of Brahma, the creator—making it a powerful emblem of life’s sacred order. Variations like the eight-petal (Astadal Padma) and hundred-petal (Satadal Padma) lotus carry their own layers of meaning, especially in Kantha work.

Paisley (Kairi): Abundance and Fertility

The paisley, or kairi, is instantly recognizable—its teardrop shape a symbol of fertility, growth, and eternity. Flowing across wedding saris and festive attire, the paisley’s organic curves evoke both plant life and the cyclical nature of existence. It’s a motif that whispers of abundance, making it a favorite for occasions celebrating new beginnings.

Wheat and Vines: Everyday Stories

Phulkari’s wheat stalks speak of prosperity and hard work, stitched lovingly by Punjabi women as blessings for the future. Chikankari’s delicate vines and florals, meanwhile, are more than decoration—they’re visual lullabies, echoing the rhythms of nature and the stories of daily life.

Fauna: The Animal Kingdom as Allegory

From peacocks (beauty and immortality) in Kashida to elephants (strength and wisdom) in Kutch, animal motifs animate textiles with layers of meaning. Each creature is chosen not just for its form, but for the values and hopes it embodies.

5.2 Architectural and Mythological Embodiments

Temples and Sacred Structures: Anchoring the Divine

Kasuti embroidery of Karnataka is famed for its miniature temples, chariots (raths), and gopurams (temple towers). These motifs are not mere ornament—they are portable shrines, reminders of the divine woven into everyday life.

Chamba Rumal: Myth in Thread

The Chamba Rumal tradition from Himachal Pradesh elevates embroidery to narrative art. Scenes from Hindu epics—gods, goddesses, and legendary battles—unfold across the cloth, each stitch a brushstroke in a sacred story. Once part of a bride’s dowry, these textiles are cherished as heirlooms and spiritual talismans.

Toda Geometry: Ritual and Identity

In Tamil Nadu, Toda embroidery is a masterclass in geometric symbolism. Pyramids, triangles, and rectangles—stitched in red and black on white—are believed to hold ritual power, connecting the wearer to ancestral traditions and the land itself.

Unity in Diversity: The Language of Symbols

Across regions and communities, motifs serve as both personal signatures and communal codes. They embody philosophical concepts—unity, adaptability, the interconnectedness of all life—transforming textiles into repositories of cultural wisdom.

Indian embroidery is thus much more than decoration. It is a living archive, a silent storyteller, and a bridge between generations. As you trace the lines of a paisley or the petals of a lotus, you’re reading a chapter in India’s grand narrative—one stitch at a time.

Many traditional motifs are now accessible as free machine embroidery designs for modern crafters.

6. Contemporary Applications in Global Fashion

Indian embroidery has leapt from village workshops to the runways of Paris and New York, reinventing itself for a world hungry for beauty, meaning, and sustainability. Here’s how tradition and innovation are dancing together in the spotlight.

6.1 Haute Couture Collaborations and Minimalist Trends

From Mughal Grandeur to Minimalist Chic Designers are reimagining classical techniques for modern sensibilities. Chikankari, once reserved for muslin finery, now graces linen office wear, pastel athleisure, and even embroidered joggers. Zardozi’s metallic splendor is toned down for contemporary bridal wear—think subtle gold on corset blouses or structured jackets, balancing opulence with restraint.

Dior-Chanakya: When East Meets West A landmark collaboration between Dior and Mumbai’s Chanakya Ateliers brought Indian needlework to the haute couture stage. For Dior’s Spring/Summer 2022 collection, artisans crafted monumental textile artworks using raw jute threads and intricate needle-point stitches. The result? A fusion of art and craft that wowed Paris, proving that Indian techniques are as relevant to global luxury as they are to local tradition.

Kalki Fashion: Embroidery Goes Athleisure Contemporary brands like Kalki Fashion are blending embroidery with modern silhouettes—embroidered hoodies, sarees with mirror work, and minimalist Chikankari kurtas for daily wear. The message is clear: embroidery isn’t just for weddings and festivals anymore; it’s for every day, every body.

Sustainable and Eco-Friendly Adaptations The push for sustainability is reshaping embroidery. Designers are turning to organic dyes, recycled threads, and handmade textiles, ensuring that beauty doesn’t come at the planet’s expense. Tone-on-tone zardozi and oversized shisha mirrors are just a few ways artisans are innovating within tradition.

6.2 Technology Meets Tradition: Digital Design and Efficiency

AI-Assisted Designs and Digitization The digital revolution is making waves in embroidery. AI-powered design tools and best digitizing software for embroidery allow artisans and designers to experiment with motifs, scale patterns, and even simulate stitches before a single thread is laid. Yet, there’s a gap—many traditional motifs still await digitization, and the tactile wisdom of handwork remains irreplaceable.

Precision Tools for Modern Makers For intricate garment embroidery, tools like the MaggieFrame magnetic embroidery hoop are bridging the gap between handcraft and efficiency. By holding fabric perfectly taut without distorting stitches, MaggieFrame enables artisans to execute complex designs with greater speed and accuracy—reducing waste and preserving the integrity of traditional techniques. This is especially crucial for high-value couture pieces, where every detail matters.

The Future: Blending Heritage and Innovation As embroidery finds new homes on runways, in streetwear, and across digital platforms, the challenge is to honor its roots while embracing change. The best of today’s fashion doesn’t just borrow from tradition—it collaborates with it, ensuring that every stitch carries both memory and momentum.

Indian embroidery is no longer confined to heirloom trunks or ceremonial halls. It’s alive, evolving, and ready for its next chapter—one where the past and future are stitched together in every thread.

7. Artisan Communities: Preservation and Challenges

Indian embroidery is not just a feast for the eyes—it is the lifeblood of millions of artisans, each stitch a testament to resilience, tradition, and the ever-present struggle for dignity. But beneath the dazzling surface of sequins and silk lies a world shaped by economic hardship, generational shifts, and a quiet revolution of empowerment.

7.1 Socioeconomic Realities and Craft Livelihoods

Step into the homes and workshops of India’s embroidery artisans, and you’ll find a tapestry woven with both beauty and adversity. Officially, about 7 million craftspeople are recognized in this sector, but the real number could be as high as 200 million, reflecting the vast, informal networks that sustain rural and urban communities alike.

Income and Inequality

The economic picture is sobering. In Lucknow, the cradle of Chikankari, artisans earn an average of just ₹2,566.66 per month, with nearly all workers making less than ₹5,000. Most households hover around ₹20,542.91 in monthly income, placing about 60% in the “upper lower” class and 40% in the “lower middle” class. For many, embroidery is a lifeline—but it rarely lifts families out of poverty.

Education and Daily Life

The challenges don’t stop at the wallet. In places like Barmer, Rajasthan, 90% of embroidery artisans are illiterate, and only a tiny fraction have received any formal education. This lack of schooling makes it hard for artisans to negotiate better wages or access new markets. Their living conditions echo this marginalization: many reside in temporary houses, cook with wood on traditional chulhas, and depend on public hand pumps for water. Land ownership is rare, so daily wage labor is essential for survival.

Gender and Generational Roles

Embroidery is a gendered craft. In rural Bengal, women gather in courtyards, quilting Kantha stories into old saris—a tradition passed from mother to daughter. In professional workshops, especially in urban centers like Mumbai, men dominate the trade, working in near silence as the hum of fans and the rhythm of needles fill the air. Yet, across regions, there’s a growing reluctance among artisans to pass the torch to the next generation. Parents dream of better prospects for their children, wary of the health problems—eye strain, backaches, headaches—and the meager earnings that come with the craft.

Regional Nuances

Each region faces its own hurdles. In Barmer, middlemen siphon off profits, leaving artisans with irregular work and low pay. In Kutch, climate change threatens the availability of natural materials, making the future of Pakko embroidery uncertain. Meanwhile, the relentless march of machine embroidery and fast fashion squeezes traditional handwork, demanding innovation and branding to stay relevant.

A Portrait in Contrasts

The artisan’s life is a paradox—rooted in ancestral skill, yet buffeted by modern pressures. As one documentary reveals, it’s easier for a young man in Mumbai to become a taxi driver than to remain an embroiderer. Still, the pride in their craft endures, stitched into every motif and mirrored in every shimmering thread.

7.2 Empowerment Initiatives and Sustainable Futures

Yet, amid these challenges, a quiet revolution is underway—one powered by digital access, ethical consumerism, and a new generation of advocates determined to rewrite the story of Indian embroidery.

Digital Platforms: A Global Stage

Platforms like Etsy and Instagram, along with local embroidery shops, have become unlikely lifelines, allowing artisans to bypass exploitative middlemen and connect directly with buyers worldwide. Suddenly, a Kantha quilt from Bengal or a mirror-worked Banjara bag can find admirers in Paris or New York, bringing both recognition and higher returns.

Sustainable Fashion: Craft Meets Conscience

The global appetite for sustainable, handmade products is fueling a renaissance. Artisans are embracing organic fabrics, natural dyes, and eco-friendly processes—especially in traditions like Pakko embroidery, which already align with ethical values. Designers and celebrities amplify these crafts through social media, blending heritage with contemporary flair to attract younger, eco-conscious consumers.

Government and NGO Support

Change is also coming from within. Government-led artisan clusters, NGOs, and private craft revival projects are offering training, financial support, and market access. Some workshops have transitioned artisans from daily-wage labor to formal employment, complete with social security and retirement benefits—a radical shift in an industry long marked by informality.

Fair Trade and Economic Justice

At the heart of every successful initiative is a simple truth: craft must pay. Fair trade certifications, consumer education, and direct marketing channels are helping to ensure that artisans are treated as skilled professionals, not cheap labor. The goal? To make embroidery a viable, respected career—one that rewards both tradition and talent.

Looking Forward: Preservation Through Evolution

The future of Indian embroidery depends on striking a delicate balance. Preservation efforts must go hand-in-hand with innovation, allowing crafts to evolve without losing their soul. Educational initiatives can empower artisans to negotiate better deals and diversify their income. Eliminating exploitative structures and building direct relationships with buyers will ensure that the true value of each stitch is recognized.

A Living Heritage

Indian embroidery is at a crossroads—caught between the weight of tradition and the promise of change. But with targeted support, creative adaptation, and a global audience hungry for authenticity, the artisans who keep these threads alive may finally find the recognition—and the livelihoods—they deserve.

8. Conclusion: Threads of Continuity and Innovation

Indian embroidery is more than an art—it is a living heritage, endlessly adapting while holding fast to its roots. Each stitch connects generations, blending ancient motifs with modern visions. As global demand grows for authenticity and sustainability, supporting artisans through ethical sourcing and fair trade is not just a choice, but a responsibility. The future of Indian embroidery lies in honoring tradition while embracing innovation—ensuring that the story woven in thread continues, vibrant and unbroken, for generations to come.

9. FAQ on Indian Embroidery Designs

9.1 Q: What is the difference between Phulkari and Bagh?

A: Phulkari refers broadly to the floral embroidery tradition of Punjab, characterized by vibrant silk threads and symbolic motifs, often worked on the reverse of coarse cotton fabric. Bagh is a specific, dense variation of Phulkari in which the entire surface of the cloth is covered with embroidery, creating a “garden” effect. Bagh pieces are typically made for weddings and can take over a year to complete.

9.2 Q: How can I identify authentic Chikankari?

A: Authentic Chikankari, rooted in Lucknow, is recognized by its delicate, white-on-white embroidery on fine muslin or cotton. The work is often done from the reverse side, using a repertoire of over 30 stitches—including flat, embossed, and openwork “jaali” stitches. Genuine pieces display intricate floral and paisley motifs, subtle texture, and a soft, ethereal finish.

9.3 Q: What was the role of the Mughals in developing zardozi embroidery?

A: The Mughal era was pivotal in elevating zardozi embroidery. Persian influences merged with Indian artistry under imperial patronage, introducing gold and silver threads, pearls, and precious stones. Zardozi became synonymous with luxury, adorning court garments, furnishings, and ceremonial textiles. The technique flourished in Mughal India, leaving a legacy of opulence and innovation that continues today.